五、 英才教育的展望:五大理论原则

2018-04-15 作者: 郑太年;赵健
五、 英才教育的展望:五大理论原则

从更加广阔的角度,我(Dai, 2010)基于发展心理学的最新成果和思路,提出了英才教育的五大理论原则,即:(a)人才的生成性、发展性,即不应该把能力看成是个体与生俱来的常数,应该把人才看成是基因、神经活动、行为和环境多水平双向互动的产物,并不断在发生新的变化。Www.Pinwenba.Com 吧教育在人才的脱颖而出中起着重要作用。(b)人才特质的不断具体化,即人对外部世界的反应模式、策略、思考,对自己的才能、价值、趋向,会有越来越精细化的把握,如先前所说的“独特适应性”,这种具体趋向整合了环境和个人因素,是无法还原到个人本身特定资质的。英才教育的辨识和课程因材施教的本质应该根据学生在某一发展时刻体现的“独特适应性”确定人才培养的方向。(c)人的能动作用,人的潜能并不完全体现在客观意义上的发展潜力,而且存在于人的行动本身。所以我根据Renzulli的三环理论,进一步把环境的因素和能动的因素结合起来,用图1中的图标演示这种动态过程。

从人的能动性的意义上说,教育不仅仅是发现和利用人的潜能,而且是在根本上开发人的潜能。(d)参与,即参与人类的各种社会实践活动,包括对知识、艺术、社会的探索,是实现人的潜能的必然途径。只有通过参与,才能唤起学生追求卓越的梦想和激情。其中互相激励、互相促进,是一个不断自我提高、自我超越的重要社会机制。英才教育应该更加重视如何提供真实的实践经验,激发个人激情,提高个人责任感。(e)同等结果(equifinality),即相同的结果可以有不同的开端和过程。英才教育应该秉持追求卓越的理念,而不是强调人的“天然禀赋”作为提供英才教育的理由。“天然禀赋”固然可以作为“准入”的门槛标准,但有没有追求卓越的动力和意愿,也应该成为重要的考量标准。历史地看,我们在如何认定某人是否值得贴上“超常儿童”或“资优儿童”标签方面浪费了太多的资源和时间。相比之下,卓越的标准是更容易确定的,更容易观察和评估的。当然,我们应该鼓励个体追求他们自己的卓越目标,而不必强加教育者自己的意愿。

结 束 语

英才教育理念在美国有近百年的历史,这一方面和心理学、教育学、社会学的发展有关,另一方面,也与美国社会从培养精英的教育理念转向惠及全民的大众教育理念有着密切关系。任何可能引起人们怀疑其公平性和公正性的公共政策,都会引起争议。出于政治和伦理的考虑,在美国,英才教育受到许多质疑。上面所说的“人才培养”和“适才教育”在一定程度上是对教育公平和教育公正的回应,使各种人才不至于因为教育政策的失当而被埋没。但是,平权的理念,也导致某些人倡导教育的民粹主义,即所有人都有天赋,所以不需要选拔人才,不需要英才教育。这个观点貌似“政治正确”,但混淆了政治概念和生物学概念。政治上,每个人都被赋予受教育的权利。但是,机会的平等不代表结果的平等。教育公平的最大误区是教育公平等于相同的教育;人与人的个体差异意味着不同的机会、不同的需求、不同的结果。只有差异化发展才可能达到最大化的个人结果。对于英才教育来说,不能回避的两个方面是选择性和追求卓越(Dai, 2010)。前者意味着英才教育和普通教育相比会有“准入门槛”,后者意味着英才教育会超越常规课程的标准。甄选实践中可能存在的不公平、不合理值得探讨、研究和改进,但选择性本身不应该成为“精英主义”批评的理由。选择的根本目的,不是为了确定某些学生多么与众不同,而是为了保证这些学生有能力、有动力追求比其他学生更高的卓越标准。卓越标准不应该被忽视。美国英才教育传统上重视辨识“资优儿童”,而对卓越性追求缺乏有效证据也是英才教育被诟病的原因之一(如Berliner & Biddle, 1995)。但这种批评也隐藏着巨大的危险。美国教育的倾向是避免选择优秀的学生进行重点培养,其结果不仅是回避选择性(选拔英才),而且是放弃对卓越的倡导(Ross, 1993)。这种听任人才自生自灭的教育政策是有害的,不利于最大限度地利用教育资源,多出人才。在英才教育问题上的过度政治化的必然结果就是教育制度在培养人才上的不作为。这是中国教育政策制定者,乃至当政者,需要引以为戒的。

另一方面,人才培养的多元化、社会化,标志着英才教育的新趋势。政府和民间力量的协力,学校和社会力量的良好互动,追求卓越和多种人才发展的价值认同正在形成。机会和选择的多样性、激励和选拔机制的针对性、社会价值的多元化,将成为英才教育今后发展的大势。这既是学校体制改革的方向,也是整合社会资源(技术资源、网络资源、大学资源)多方位地探索开放灵活的培养模式。英才教育无边界。说到底,英才教育体现的,是一个社会在教育体制、社会体制以及文化上所呈现的活力和价值观。

注:本文部分内容取自拙著《超常能力的本质和培养》(The Nature and Nurture of Giftedness,哥伦比亚大学师范学院出版社,2010年版)一书,中译本将由华东师范大学出版社2013年4月出版。

参考文献:

Ackerman, C.M.(2009). The essential elements of Dabrowskis theory of positive disintegration and how they are connected. Roeper Review, 31,81-95.

Ackerman, P.L.(2003). Aptitude complexes and trait complexes. Educational Psychologist, 38,85-93.

Allport, G.W.(1937). Patterns and growth in personality. New York:Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Barab, S.A., & Plucker, J.A.(2002). Smart people or smart context? Cognition, ability, and talent development in an age of situated approaches to knowing and learning. Educational Psychologist, 37,165-182.

Berliner, D.C., & Biddle, R.J.(1995). The manufactured crisis: Myths, fraud, and the attach on Americas public schools. Reading, MA:AddisonWesley Publishing.

Bloom, B.S.(1985). Developing talent in young people. New York:Ballantine Books.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S.J.(1994). Naturenurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101,568-586.

Carroll, J.B.(1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factoranalytic studies. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

Carroll, J.B.(1997). Psychometrics, intelligence, and public perception. Intelligence, 24,25-52.

Coleman, L.J., & Cross, T.L.(2005). Being gifted in school: An introduction to development, guidance, and teaching. Waco, TX:Prufrock Press.

Csikszentmihalyi, M.(1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York:HarperCollins.

Csikszentmihalyi, M., Rathunde, K., & Whalen, S.(1993). Talented teenager. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Dai, D.Y.(in press). Giftedness in the making: A response to Ziegler and Phillipson (2012). High Ability Studies.

Dai, D.Y.(2010). The nature and nurture of giftedness: A new framework for understanding gifted education. New York:Teachers College Press.

Dai, D.Y.(2011). Hopeless anarchy or saving pluralism? Reflections on our field in response to Ambrose,VanTasselBaska,Coleman,and Cross. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 34,705-730.

Dai, D.Y., & Renzulli, J.S. (2008). Snowflakes, living systems, and the mystery of giftedness. Gifted Child Quarterly, 52,114-130.

Dunbar, K.(1997). How scientists think: Online creativity and conceptual change in science. In T.B. Ward, S.M. Smith & J. Vaid (Eds.), Creative thought: an investigation of conceptual structures and processes(pp.461-493). Washington,DC:American Psychological Association.

Dweck, C.S.(1999). Selftheories: Their role in motivation,personality,and development. Philadelphia, PA Psychology Press.

Dweck, C.S.(2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York:Random House.

Dweck, C.S.(2009). Foreword. In F.D. Horowitz,R.F. Subotnik & D.J. Matthews (Eds.), The development of giftedness and talent across the lifespan(pp. xixiv). Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

Ericsson, K.A.(2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. In K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, P.J. Feltovich & R.R. Hoffman(Eds.), The cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp.683-703). New York:Cambridge University Press.

Ericsson, K.A., Nandagopal, K., & Roring, R.W.(2005). Giftedness viewed from the expertperformance perspective. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28,287-311.

Ericsson, K.A., Nandagopal, K., & Roring,R.W.(2007a). Giftedness and evidence for reproducibly superior performance: An account based on the expertperformance framework. High Ability Studies, 18,3-55.

Feldman, D.H.(1986). Natures gambit: Child prodigies and the development of human potential. New York:Basic Books.

Feldman, D.H.(2003). A developmental, evolutionary perspective on giftedness. In J.H. Borland(Ed.), Rethinking gifted education(pp.9-33). New York:Teachers College, Columbia University.

Feldman, D.H.(2009, August). Giftedness and development: What kind of theory? Paper presented at the annual meeting of American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.

Freeman.(2005). Permission to be gifted: How conceptions of giftedness can change lives. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson(Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness(2 ed., pp.80-97). Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press.

Gagné, F.(2004). Transforming gifts into talents: The DMGT as a developmental model. High Ability Studies, 15,119-147.

Gagné, F.(2009b). Debating giftedness: Pronat vs. antinat. In L. Shavinina (Ed.), International handbook on giftedness(pp.155-198). New York:Springer Science.

Gallagher, J.J.(2000b). Unthinkable thoughts: Education of gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 44,5-12.

Galton, F.(1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London:Macmillan.

Gardner, H.(1997). Extraordinary minds: Portraits of 4 exceptional individuals and an examination of our extraordinariness. New York:Basic Books.

Geake, J.(2009). Neuropsychological characteristics of academic and creative giftedness. In L. Shavinina (Ed.), Handbook on Giftedness. New York:Springer Science.

Gee, J.P.(2003). Opportunity to learn: A languagebased perspective on assessment. Assessment in Education, 10,27-46.

Gjerde, P.F.(2004). Culture,power,and experience: Toward a personcentered cultural psychology. Human Development, 47,138-157.

Gottfredson, L.S.(1997). Editorial: Mainstream science on intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories,history,and bibliography. Intelligence, 24,13-23.

Granott, N., & Parziale, J.(2002). Microdevelopment: A processoriented perspective for studying development and learning. In N. Granott & J. Parziale(Eds.),Microdevelopment: Transition processes in development and learning(pp.1-28). Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press.

Gruber, H.E.(1986). The selfconstruction of the extraordinary. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (pp.247-263). Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press.

Horowitz, F.D. (2009). Introduction: A developmental understanding of giftedness and talent. In F.D. Horowitz,R.F. Subotnik, & D.J. Matthews (Eds.), The development of giftedness and talent across the lifespan(pp.3-19). Washington,DC:American Psychological Association.

Just, M.A., & Carpenter, P.A.(1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, 99,122-149.

Keating, D.P.(2009). Developmental science and giftedness: An integrated lifespan framework. In F.D. Horowitz,R.F. Subotnik & D.J. Matthews (Eds.), The development of giftedness and talent across the lifespan(pp.189-208). Washington:American Psychological Association.

Kimble, G.A.(1984). Psychologys two cultures. American Psychologist, 39,833-839.

Kuhn, D.(2002). A multicomponent system that constructs knowledge: Insights from microgenetic study. In N. Granott & J. Parziale(Eds.), Microdevelopment: Transition processes in development and learning (pp.109-130). Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press.

Kyllonen, P.C., & Christal, R.(1990). Reasoning ability is (little more than) workingmemory capacity? Intelligence, 14,389-433.

Leung, A.K., Maddux, W.W., Galinsky, A.D., & Chiu, C.(2008). Multicultural experience enhances creativity:The when and how. American Psychologist, 63,169-181.

Lohman, D.F.(1994b). Spatially gifted, verbally inconvenienced. In N. Colangelo,S.G. Assouline & D. L. Ambroson(Eds.),Talent development(Vol. Ⅱ, pp.251-263).

Lohman, D.F.(2005a). An aptitude perspective on talent identification: Implications for identification of academically gifted minority students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28,333-360.

Lohman, D.F., & Korb, K.A.(2006). Gifted today but not tomorrow? Longitudinal changes in ability and achievement during elementary school. Journal for the Education of the Gifted 29,451-484.

Lubinski, D.(2004). Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearmans (1904) “‘General intelligence’, objectively determined and measure”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86,96-111.

Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C.P.(2006). Study of mathematically precious youth after 35 years. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1,316-345.

Matthews, D.J., & Foster, J.F.(2006). Mystery to mastery: Shifting paradigms in gifted education. Roeper Review, 28,64-69.

Matthews, D.J., Subotnik, R.F., & Horowitz, F.D.(2009). A developmental perspective on giftedness and talent: Implications for research, policy, and practice. In Horowitz, F.D., Subotnik, R., & Matthews, D.J.(Eds.) The development of giftedness and talent across the lifespan. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

McAdams, D.P., & Pals, J.L.(2006). A new big five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61,204-217.

Moran, S., & JohnSteiner, V.(2003). Creativity in the making: Vygotskys contemporary contribution to the dialectic of development and creativity. In R.K. Sawyer, V. JohnSteiner, S. Moran,R.J. Sternberg, D.H. Feldman, J. Nakamura & M. Csikszentmihayi (Eds.), Creativity and development(pp.61-90). Oxford, England:Oxford University Press.

Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T.J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J., et al.(1996). Intelligence:Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51,77-101.

Nisbett, R.E.(2009). Intelligence and how to get it: Why schools and culture count. New York:W.W. Norton & Company.

Papierno, P.B., Ceci, S.J., Makel, M.C., & Williams, W.W.(2005). The nature and nurture of talent: A bioecological perspective on the ontogeny of exceptional abilities. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28,312-331.

Perkins, D., & Ritchhart, R.(2004). When is good thinking. In D.Y. Dai & R.J. Sternberg (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrative perspectives on intellectual functioning and development(pp.351-384). Mahwah,NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

Plomin, R.(1997). Identifying genes for cognitive abilities and disabilities. In R.J. Sternberg & E.L. Grigorenko (Eds.),Intelligence, heredity, and environment(pp.89-104). New York:Cambridge University Press.

Robinson, N.M.(2005). In defense of a psychometric approach to the definition of academic giftedness: A conservative view from a diehard liberal. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2 ed., pp.280-294). Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press.

Rogoff, B.(2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford, England:Oxford University Press.

Sawyer, R.K.(2003). Emergence in creativity and development. In R.K. Sawyer,V. JohnSteiner, S. Moran, R.J. Sternberg, D.H. Feldman, J. Nakamura & M. Csikszentmihayi (Eds.), Creativity and development(pp.12-60). Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press.

Shavinina, L.(1999). The psychological essence of the child prodigy phenomenon: Sensitive periods and cognitive experience. Gifted Child Quarterly, 43,25-38.

Simonton, D.K.(1999). Talent and its development: An emergenic and epigenetic model. Psychological Review, 3,435-457.

Simonton, D.K.(2005). Giftedness and genetics: The emergenicepigenetic model and its implications. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 28,270-286.

Snow, C.E.(1999). Social perspectives on the emergence of language. In B. MacWhinney (Ed.), The emergence of language (pp. 257-276). Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.

Snow, C.P.(1967). The two cultures and a second look. London:Cambridge University Press.

Sosniak, L.A.(2006). Retrospective interviews in the study of expertise and expert performance. In K.A. Ericsson,N. Charness, P.J. Feltovich & R.R. Hoffman (Eds.), The cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp.287-301). New York:Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R.J.(1995). A thriarchic approach to giftedness (Research Monograph 95126). Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.

Sternberg, R.J.(1999a). A propulsion model of types of creative contributions. Review of General Psychology, 3,83-100.

Subotnik, R.F., & Jarvin, L.(2005). Beyond expertise: Conceptions of giftedness as great performance. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2 ed., pp.343-357). Cambridge, England:Cambridge University Press.

Tannenbaum, A.J.(1997). The meaning and making of giftedness. In N. Colangelo & G.A. Davis(Eds.), Handbook of gifted education(2 ed.,pp.27-42). Boston, MA.

Triandis, H.C.(1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96,506-520.

Vygotsky, L.S.(1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press.

Ziegler, A.(2005). The Actiotope Model of giftedness. In R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness (2 ed.,pp.411-436). Cambridge,England:Cambridge University Press.

Ziegler, A., & Heller, K.A.(2000). Conceptions of giftedness from a metatheoretical perspective. In K.A. Heller, F.J. Monk, R.J. Sternberg & R.F. Subotnik (Eds.), International handbook of giftedness and talent (2nd ed.,pp.3-21). Amsterdam:Elsevier Science Ltd.

Zuckerman, H.(1983). The scientific elite: Nobel laureates mutual influences. In R.S. Albert(Ed.), Genius and eminence: The social psychology of creativity and exceptional achievement (pp.241-252). Oxford, UK:Pergamon Press.

Zuckerman, M.(2004). The shaping of personality: Genes, environments, and chance encounters. Journal of Personality Assessment, 82,11-22.

关闭